Microchip fabrication peter van zant pdf free download

You will certainly not regret it. This website really provides you ease of how you can obtain the very best e-book, from ideal seller to the brand-new launched book. You could locate a lot more books in this website by going to every link that we provide. Novice-friendly intro to semiconductor processing. The most readable and comprehensive guide to semiconductorprocessing, Peter Van Zant's Microchip Fabrication is considered the bible of basic microchip technology.

Now in an updated new fourth edition, this completely math-free introduction to a complex field is an efficient tool for high-powered engineers and technology-clueless salespeople alike.

You'll find fully illuminating, easy-reading explanations of semiconductor materials and process chemicals A perfect introduction to the industry that's the backbone of the technology revolution, industry insider Peter Van Zant's Microchip Fabrication is a highly popular, novice-friendly guide to the entire process of semiconductor processing--from raw materials through shipping the finished, packaged device.

Used for training, teaching, and vo-tech programs, and tailor-made for any semiconductor professional, Microchip Fabrication features a straightforward, math-free approach. And it details semiconductors from the inside out, covering science basics, it's fascinating history, and the latest technical leap forward. Inside, you'll follow semiconductors through every stage of fabrication. Testing, manufacturing processes, commercial integrated circuit types, and packaging are all explained in simple, nontechnical language.

Along the way, Van Zant introduces challenging quizzes and review summaries that make Microchip Fabrication an ideal text or self-study guide. By the time you've finished this informative "guided tour," you'll have a solid working knowledge of all the important issues and processes, materials and methods involved in semiconductor technology, whether on the sub-atomic level or in the context of large-scale industrial practices.

About the Author Peter Van Zant is an internationally known semiconductor professional with an extensive background in process engineering, training, consulting, and writing. His books and training materials are used by chip manufacturers, industry suppliers, colleges, and universities. When I heard the 4th edition, I cannot wait to buy one. This book is written so well that it's good for readers from inside and outside of the industry. Next, thin disks called wafers are cut from the crystal and surface treated Fig.

The industry also makes devices and circuits from germanium and compounds of different semiconductor materials. In stage three Fig. Up to several thousand identical devices can be formed on each wafer, al- though two to three hundred is a more common number. The area on the wafer occupied by each discrete device or integrated circuit is called a chip or die. The wafer fabrication process is also called fabri- cation, fab, chip fabrication, or microchip fabrication.

While a wafer fabrication operation may take several thousand individual steps, there are two major activities. In the front end of the line FEOL , the transistors and other devices are formed in the wafer surface. Following wafer fabrication, the devices or circuits on the wafer are complete, but untested and still in wafer form.

Packaging Fig. A protective chip package is necessary to protect the chip from contamination and abuse, and to provide a durable and substantial electrical lead system to allow connection of the chip onto a printed circuit board or directly into an electronic product.

Packag- ing takes place in a different department of the semiconductor pro- ducer and quite often in a foreign plant. The vast majority of chips are packaged in individual packages. But a growing percentage are being incorporated into hybrid circuits, in multichip modules MCMs , or mounted directly on printed circuit.

An integrated circuit is an electrical cir- cuit formed entirely by semiconductor technology on a single chip. These techniques are explained in Chapter While the tremendous advantages of solid-state electronics was recog- nized early on, the advancements possible from miniaturization were not realized until two decades later.

The structure that makes semiconductor devices function is the junction Fig. It is formed by creating a structure that is rich in electrons negative polarity or N-type next to a region rich in holes lo- cations with missing electrons that act electrically positive or P-type see Chapter A transistor requires two junctions to work see Chapter Early commercial transistors were of the bipolar type see Chapter 14 , which dominated production well into the s.

The term bipolar re- fers to a transistor structure that operates on both negative and posi- tive currents. William Shockley pub- lished the operational basics of a FET in These transistors oper- ate with only one type of current and are also called unipolar devices. William Shockley and Bell Labs get much of the credit for the spread of semiconductor technology. While his company did not survive, it established semiconductor manufacturing on the West Coast and provided the beginning of what eventually be- came known as Silicon Valley.

The early semiconductor devices were made in the material germa- nium. The issue over which material would dominate was settled in and by two more develop- ments from Bell Labs: diffused junctions and oxide masking. Silicon dioxide is a dielectric material, which allows it to function on the silicon surface as an insulator. Additionally, SiO2 is an effective block to the dopants that form the N and P regions in silicon.

The net effect of these advances was planar technology Fig. With the above-named tech- niques, it was possible to form diffusion and protect silicon dioxide junctions during and after the wafer fabrication process. Also, the de- velopment of oxide masking allowed two junctions to be formed through the top surface of the wafer Fig.

Bell Labs conceived of forming transistors in a high purity layer of semiconducting material deposited on top of the wafer Fig. Called an epitaxial layer, this discovery allowed higher speed devices and provided a scheme for the closer packing of components in a bipo- lar circuit. The s was indeed the golden age of semiconductor develop- ment. During this incredibly short time, most of the basic processes and materials were discovered.

Five Decades of Industry Development In the s, basic and crude products and processes launched an in- dustry that has grown into a major world manufacturing sector. The s was the decade the industry started growing into a sophisti- cated industry, driven by new products that demanded new fabrica- tion processes, which demanded new materials and new production equipment.

The chip price erosion trend of the industry, well estab- lished in the s, also was an industry driver. Technology spread as engineers changed companies in the industry clusters in Silicon Valley, Route around Boston, and in Texas.

On the company front, many of the key players of the s formed new companies. New device designs were the usual driver of start-up companies. However, the ever present price erosion was a cruel trend that drove both estab- lished and new companies out of business. Price dropping was accelerated by the development of a plastic package for silicon devices in The decade also saw the improvement of cleanroom construction and operation, the introduction of ion implantation machines, and the use of e-beam machines for high-quality mask generation, and mask steppers began to show in fab areas for wafer imaging.

The move from operator control to automatic control of the processes increased both wafer throughput and uniformity. Along with the pro- cess improvements came a more detailed understanding of the physics of solid-state devices, which allowed the mastering of the technology by student engineers worldwide.

The focus in the s was automation of all phases of wafer fabri- cation and packaging and elimination of operators from the fab areas. These issues are examined in more detail in Chap- ter 4. As in automobile industry automation, especially in the area of design, manufacturers began to design more complicated chips.

The new designs, in turn, presented new manufacturing challenges that led to the development of new pro- cesses. At these sophisticated levels, machine automation is required to achieve the process control and repeatability. The s started with American and European dominance and ended as a worldwide industry. Through the s and s, the one- micron feature size barrier loomed as both opportunity and challenge.

The opportunity was a new era of megachips with vastly increased speeds and memory. The challenge was the limitations of conventional lithography, additional layers, more step height variation on the wafer surface, and increasing wafer diameters, to mention a few. The one- micron barrier was crossed in the early s when 50 percent7 of mi- crochip fabrication lines were working at the micron or submicron level. The industry matured into more traditional focuses on manufactur- ing and marketing issues.

The spread of the technology competition and improvements in process control, however, moved the industry to greater emphasis on the production issues.

Strategies to control the cost have included detailed analysis of equipment cost of ownership, new fab layouts such as cluster tools , robotic automation, wafer isolation technology WIT , computer inte- grated manufacturing CIM , sophisticated statistical process control, advanced metrology instruments, just-in-time inventory schemes, and others see Chapter Technical driving factors feature size reduction, wafer diameter in- creases, and yield improvement all have physical or statistical limits.

The pressures are enor- mous. Manufacturing chips with features sizes below 0. The challenge of the SIA Roadmap IRTS is that many of the pro- cesses required to produce the next generations of chips are unknown or in very primitive states of development.

However, the good news is that the industry is moving forward along an evolutionary curve rather than relying on revolutionary breakthroughs. Engineers are wringing every bit of productivity out of the processes before looking for a big technology jump to solve problems. This is another sign of a maturing industry. Perhaps the major technological change of the decade was copper wiring.

Aluminum wiring ran into limitations in several areas, nota- bly in contact resistance with silicon. It was also a killer of circuit operation if it got into the silicon. IBM8 developed usable copper processes Chapters 10 and 13 , which gained almost instant acceptance for wiring together advanced chips.

Thus, feature sizes and gate widths are expressed in microns micrometers , as in 0. It is becoming. Gate widths of 22 nm or less are predicted by At these levels, the operational parts of devices consist of only a few at- oms or molecules. Getting there will not be easy. There is a predictable train of events that happen as devices are scaled to smaller dimensions. Advantages are faster operating transistors and higher-density chips. However, smaller dimensions require more sophisticated processes and equip- ment.

A gate area is the critical working part of an MOS transistor. Smaller gates are more vulnerable to contamination, which drives the development of cleaner chemicals and processes. Detecting lower lev- els of contamination requires more sensitive measurement tech- niques.

Surface roughness becomes a parameter requiring control. As the devices get closer together, they drive the need for a superstructure of metallization layers stacked on top of the surface. More metallization layers bring with them higher electri- cal resistances, which drive the need for new metallization materials, such as copper.

As the number of electrical functions on a chip in- creases, so does the internal temperature, driving the need for heat dissipation techniques. More processes at higher levels of detail will require higher- volume wafer fabrication plants with more sophisticated process auto- mation and factory management.

By , the industry and circuits will be far different from what they are now, and the industry will be near the end of the basic phys- ics of silicon transistors. Not all IC uses have to be state of the art. It is unlikely that toasters, refrigerators, and automo- biles will require cutting-edge devices.

Compound semiconductors, such as gallium arsenide GaAs are candidates. Technologies such as molecular beam epitaxy MBE Chapter 12 may be employed to build entirely new materials one atom at a time.

These structures have promise for a number of uses. In semiconductor technology, it appears that these nets of carbon atoms can be doped to act as electronic devices and, eventually, electronic circuits.

It is safe to say that the semiconductor industry will continue to be the dominant industry as it continues to push the limits of material and manufacturing technology. It is also safe to predict that the use of ICs will continue to shape our world in ways yet unknown.

List the four types of discrete devices. Describe the advantages of solid-state devices over vacuum tubes. Describe the difference between a hybrid and integrated circuit. State the stage of processing in which wafers are produced. Describe an N-P junction. List three trends that have driven the semiconductor industry. Describe the functions of a semiconductor package.

References 1. Economic Indicator, Semiconductor International, January , p. Economic Indicator, Semiconductor International, January , pp. Baliga, Ed. Skinner and G. Gettel, Solid State Technology, February , p. Source: Microchip Fabrication.

Overview Semiconductor materials possess electrical and physical properties that allow the unique functions of semiconductor devices and circuits. Wafer fabrication is a long series of steps that include many clean- ing operations using ordinary and specialty chemicals. The basic prop- erties of gases, acids, bases, and solvents are discussed. Identify the parts of an atom. Name the two unique properties of a doped semiconductor. List at least three semiconducting materials.

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of gallium arsenide compared with silicon. Explain the difference in composition and electrical functioning of N- and P-type semiconducting materials. Describe the properties of resistivity and resistance. Identify the differences between acids, alkalis, and solvents.

List the four states of nature. Properties of Semiconductor Materials and Chemicals. Explain four or more basic chemical handling safety rules. The Bohr atom The understanding of semiconductor materials requires a basic knowl- edge of atomic structure.

Atoms are the building blocks of the physical universe. Everything in the universe as far as we know is made from the 96 stable materi- als and 12 unstable ones known as elements. Each element has a dif- ferent atomic structure. The different structures give rise to the different properties of the elements.

The unique properties of gold are due to its atomic structure. If a piece of gold is divided into smaller and smaller pieces, one eventually arrives at the last piece that exhibits the properties of gold. That last piece is the atom. Dividing that last piece further will yield the three parts that com- pose individual atoms.

They are called the subatomic particles. These are protons, neutrons, and electrons. Each of these subatomic particles has its own properties. A particular combination and structure of the subatomic particles are required to form the gold atom. Properties of Semiconductor Materials and Chemicals The Bohr atom model has the positively charged protons and neu- tral neutrons located together in the nucleus of the atom.

There is an at- tractive force between the positively charged protons and the nega- tively charged electrons. However, this force is balanced by the outward centrifugal force of the electrons moving in their orbits. The net result is a structurally stable atomic structure.

Each orbit has a maximum number of positions available for elec- trons. The Periodic Table of the Elements The elements differ from each other in the number of electrons, pro- tons, and neutrons in their atoms. Fortunately, nature combines the subatomic particles in an orderly fashion. An examination of some of the rules governing atomic structure is helpful in understanding the properties of semiconducting materials and process chemicals.

Atoms and therefore the elements range from the simplest, hydrogen with one electron to the most complicated one, lawrencium with elec- trons.

Hydrogen consists of only one proton in the nucleus and only one electron. In each atom, there is an equal number of protons and electrons. Hydrogen has one pro- ton in its nucleus, while the oxygen atom has eight. This fact leads to the assignment of numbers to each of the ele- ments. Known as the atomic number, it is equal to the number of protons and therefore electrons in the atom.

The basic reference of the elements is the periodic table Fig. The atomic number is in the upper left hand corner of the box. Thus, calcium Ca has the atomic number 20, so we know immedi- ately that calcium has 20 protons in its nucleus and 20 electrons in its orbital system. Neutrons are electrically neutral particles that, along with the protons, make up the mass of the nucleus.

Figure 2. When constructing the dia-. The rule is that each orbit n can hold 2n2 electrons. Solution of the math for orbit no. This rule forces the third electron of lithium into the second ring. The rule limits the number of electrons in the second ring to 8 and that of the third.

These three atoms have a commonalty. Each has an outer ring with only one electron in it. This illustrates another observable fact of elements.

Elements with the same number of outer-orbit electrons have simi- lar properties. Note that hydrogen, lithium, and sodium appear on the table in a vertical col- umn labeled with the Roman numeral one I.

The column number represents the number of electrons in the outer ring and all of the elements in each column share similar properties. It is no accident that the three of the best electrical conductors copper, silver, and gold all appear in the same column Ib Fig. There are two more rules of atomic structure relevant to the un- derstanding of semiconductors. Atoms seek to combine with other atoms to create the stable condi- tion of full orbits or eight electrons in their outer ring.

An electrical current is. Electrical conduction takes place in ele- ments and materials where the attractive hold of the protons on the outer ring electrons is relatively weak. In such a material, these elec- trons can be easily moved, which sets up an electrical current.

This condition exists in most metals. The property of materials to conduct electricity is measured by a factor known as conductivity. The higher the conductivity, the better the conductor. Conducting ability is also measured by the reciprocal of the conductivity, which is resistivity.

The lower the resistivity of a ma- terial, the better the conducting ability. Dielectrics and Capacitors At the opposite end of the conductivity scale are materials that ex- hibit a large attractive force between the nucleus and the orbiting electrons.

The net effect is a great deal of resistance to the move- ment of electrons. These materials are known as dielectrics. They have low conductivity and high resistivity. In electrical circuits and products, dielectric materials such as silicon dioxide glass are used as insulators.

An electrical device known as a capacitor is formed whenever a di- electric layer is sandwiched between two conductors. In semiconduc- tor structures, capacitors are formed in MOS gate structures, between metal layers and silicon substrates separated by dielectric layers, and other structures see Chapter The practical effect of a capacitor is that it stores electrical charges.

Semiconductor metal conduction systems need high conductivity and, therefore, low-resistance and low-capacitance materials. These are referred to as low-k dielectrics.

Dielectric layers used as insulators between conducting layers need high capacitances or high-k dielectrics. The resistance is a factor of the resistivity and dimensions of the material. Intrinsic Semiconductors Semiconducting materials, as the name implies, are materials that have some natural electrical conducting ability.

There are two elemen- tal semiconductors silicon and germanium , and both are found in col-. In addition, there are some tens of material compounds a compound is a material containing two or more chemically bound elements that also exhibit semiconducting properties.

Others are compounds from el- ements from columns II and VI of the periodic table. Doped Semiconductors Semiconducting materials, in their intrinsic state, are not useful in solid-state devices. These elements increase the conductivity of the intrinsic semiconduc- tor material.

The doped material displays two unique properties that are the basis of solid-state electronics. The two properties are. Precise resistivity control through doping 2. Electron and hole conduction. Resistivity of doped semiconductors. The implications of this limit are illus- trated by an examination of the resistor represented in Fig.

In a semi- conducting material, the resistivity can be changed, giving another de- gree of freedom in the design of the resistor. Semiconductors are such a material.

Their resistivity can be extended over the range of 10—3 to by the addition of dopant atoms. Semiconducting materials can be doped into a useful resistivity range by elements that make the material either electron rich N- type or hole rich P-type. The x-axis is labeled the carrier concentration because the electrons or holes in the material are called carriers. Note that there are two curves: N-type and P-type. That is due to the different amount of energies required to move an electron or a hole through the material.

As the curves indicate, it takes less of a concentration of N- type dopants than P-type dopants to create a given resistivity in sili- con. Another way to express this phenomenon is that it takes less en- ergy to move an electron than to move a hole. It takes only 0. This property of semi- conductors allows the creation of regions of very precise resistivity values in the material. Electron and Hole Conduction Another limit of a metal conductor is that it conducts electricity only through the movement of electrons.

Metals are permanently N-type. N- and P-type semiconductors can conduct elec- tricity by either electrons or holes. Before examining the conduction mechanism, it is instructive to examine the creation of free or extra electrons or holes in a semiconductor structure. To understand the situation of N-type semiconductors, consider a piece of silicon Si doped with a very small amount of arsenic As as shown in Fig. Assuming even mixing, each of the arsenic atoms would be surrounded by silicon atoms.

After Thurber et al. Standards Spec. The net result is that four of them pair up with electrons from the sili- con atoms, leaving one left over. This one electron is available for elec- trical conduction. Considering that a crystal of silicon has millions of atoms per cm3, there are lots of electrons available to conduct an electrical current. An understanding of P-type material is approached in the same manner Fig.

The difference is that only boron, from column III of the periodic table, is used to make silicon P-type. When mixed into the silicon, it too borrows electrons from silicon atoms. Within a doped semiconductor material, there is a great deal of ac- tivity: holes and electrons are constantly being created. How the electrons contribute to electrical conduction is illustrated in Fig.

When a voltage is applied across a piece of conducting or semiconducting material, the negative electrons move toward the pos- itive pole of the voltage source, such as a battery.

In P-type material Fig. Of course, when it leaves its position, it leaves a new hole. As it con- tinues toward the positive pole, it creates a succession of holes.

The ef- fect to someone measuring this process with a current meter is that the material is supporting a positive current, when actually it is a neg- ative current moving in the opposite direction.

The dopants that create a P-type conductivity in a semiconductor material are called acceptors. Dopants that create N-type conditions are called donors. An easy way to keep these terms straight is that ac- ceptor has a p and donor is spelled with an n.

The electrical characteristics of conductors, insulators, and semicon- ductors are summarized in Fig. The particular characteristics of doped semiconductors are summarized in Fig. In a circuit we are interested in both the energy required to move these carriers holes and electrons and the speed at which they move.

The speed of movement is called the carrier mobility, with holes having a lower mobility than electrons. This factor is an important consider- ation in selecting a particular semiconducting material for a circuit.

Germanium and silicon Germanium and silicon are the two elemental semiconductors. However, germanium presents problems in pro- cessing and in device performance. More importantly, its lack of a natural occurring oxide leaves the surface prone to electrical leakage. Consequently, silicon represents over 90 per- cent of the wafers processed worldwide. Of these compounds, the ones most used in commercial semiconductor devices are gallium arsenide GaAs and gallium arsenide-phosphide GaAsP , indium phosphide InP , gallium aluminum arsenic GaAlAs , and in-.

They are the ma- terials used to make the light-emitting diodes LEDs used in elec- tronic panel displays. An important property of gallium arsenide is its high electrical car- rier mobility.

This property allows a gallium arsenide device to react to high-frequency microwaves and effectively switch them into electrical currents in communications systems faster than silicon devices.

This same property, carrier mobility, is the basis for the excitement over gallium arsenide transistors and ICs. GaAs has a natural resistance to radiation-caused leakage. Radia- tion, such as that found in space, causes holes and electrons to form in semiconductor materials. It gives rise to unwanted currents that can cause the device or circuit to malfunction or cease functioning.

Devices that can perform in a radiation environment are known as radiation hardened. GaAs is naturally radiation hardened. GaAs is also semi-insulating.

In an integrated circuit, this property minimizes leakage between adjacent devices, allowing a higher pack- ing density, which in turn results in a faster circuit because the holes and electrons travel shorter distances.

In silicon circuits, special iso- lating structures must be built into the surface to control surface leak- age. These structures take up valuable space and reduce the density of the circuit. Despite all of the advantages, GaAs is not expected to replace silicon as the mainstream semiconducting material. While GaAs circuits are very fast, the majority of electronic products do not require their level of speed. On the performance side, GaAs, like germanium, does not possess a natural oxide.

To compensate, layers of dielectrics must be deposited on the GaAs, which leads to longer processing and lower yields. Also, half of the atoms in GaAs are arsenic, an element that is very dangerous to human beings. Unfortunately, the arsenic evaporates from the compound at normal process temperatures, re- quiring the addition of suppression layers caps or pressurized process chambers.

These steps lengthen the processing and add to its cost. Evaporation also occurs during the crystal growing stage, resulting in nonuniform crystals and wafers. The nonuniformity produces wa- fers that are very prone to breakage during fab processing. Also, the production of large-diameter GaAs wafers has lagged behind that of silicon see Chapter 3. The combination increases transistor speeds to levels that allow ultra-fast radios and personal communication devices.

Unlike the simpler transistors formed in silicon technology, SiGe required transistors with hetrostructures or heterojunctions. A comparison of the major semiconducting production materials and silicon dioxide is presented in Fig.

Engineered Substrates A bulk wafer was the traditional substrate for fabricating microchips. Electrical performance demands new substrates, such as silicon on an. Dia- mond dissipates heat better than silicon.

The electrical effect is to lower the silicon resistance, allowing electrons to move up to 70 percent faster. Ferroelectric Materials In the ongoing search for faster and more reliable memory structures, ferroelectrics have emerged as a viable option. One end point is when the transistor parts become so tiny that the physics governing transistor action no longer work.

Another limit is heat dissipation. Bigger and denser chips run very hot. Unfortunately, high heat also degrades the electrical operations and can render the chip useless. Di- amond is a crystal material that dissipates heat much faster than sili- con.

However, there is new research into making synthetic dia- monds using vapor deposition techniques. Doping diamond is the next barrier. Process Chemicals It should be fairly obvious that extensive processing is required to change the raw semiconducting materials into useful devices. The ma- jority of these processes use chemicals. In fact, microchip fabrication is primarily a chemical process or, more correctly, a series of chemical.

Up to 20 percent of all process steps are cleaning or wafer surface preparation. Part of this cost is due to the extremely high purities and special formulations required of the chemicals to allow precise and clean processing. Larger wafers and higher cleanliness re- quirements need more automated cleaning stations and the cost of re- moval of spent chemicals is rising. When the costs of producing a chip are added up, process chemicals can be up to 40 percent of all manu- facturing costs.

The cleanliness requirements for semiconductor process chemicals are explored in Chapter 4. At the beginning of this chapter, the basic structure of matter was ex- plained by the use of the Bohr atomic model.

This model was used to explain the structural differences of the elements that make up all the materials in the physical universe. But it is obvious that the universe contains more than the number of elements types of matter.

The basic unit of a nonelemental material is the molecule. The basic unit of water is a molecule composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The multiplicity of materials comes about from the abil- ity of atoms to bond together to form molecules.

It is inconvenient to draw diagrams such as in Fig. The more common practice is to write the molecular formula. For water, it is the familiar H2O. This formula tells us exactly the elements and their number in the mate- rial. Chemists use the more precise term compound in describing dif- ferent combinations of elements.

Thus, H2O water , NaCl sodium chloride or salt , H2O2 hydrogen peroxide , and As2O3 arsine are all different compounds composed of aggregates of individual molecules. Slurries are used in polishing operations such as chemical mechani- cal polishing CMP.

Some elements combine into diatomic molecules. A diatomic mole- cule is one composed of two atoms of the same element. The familiar process gases oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen , in their natural state, are all composed of diatomic molecules. Materials also come in two other forms: mixtures and solutions. Mixtures are composed of two or more substances, but the substances retain their individual properties.

A mixture of salt and pepper is the classic example. Solutions are mixtures of a solid dissolved in a liquid. In the liquid, the solids are interspersed, with the solution taking on unique proper- ties. However, the substances in a solution do not form into a new mol- ecule. Saltwater is an example of a solution. It can be separated back into its starting parts: salt and water. The term ion or ionic is used often in connection with semiconductor processing. This term refers to any atom or molecule that exists in a material with an unbalanced charge.

The problem comes from the positive charge carried by the sodium when it gets into the semiconductor material or device. Solids, liquids, and gases Matter is found in four different states. They are solids, liquids, gases, and plasma Fig. A liter of water will take the shape of any container in which it is stored.

The state of a particular material has a lot to do with its pressure and temperature. Temperature is a measure of the total energy incor- porated in the material. Plasma state The fourth state of nature is plasma. A star is an example of a plasma state. They are used in semiconductor technology to cause chemical reactions in gas mixtures. One of their advantages is that energy can be delivered at a lower temperature than in convention systems, such as convection heating in ovens.

Properties of Matter All materials can be differentiated by their chemical compositions and the properties that arise from those compositions. Additionally, safe use of some chemicals requires knowledge and control of their temperatures. Three temperature scales are used to express the temperature of a material. It may takes up to minutes before you received it.

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